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Wednesday, June 30, 2021

CONTINUITY: Stellar Proper Motion

Aligning two images, taken sixty-five years apart, on distant galaxy Messier 51, shows the motion of foreground “fixed stars” in the Milky Way galaxy. The observed motion of stars due to their actual orbits around the galaxy's centre of mass, is called “proper motion”, as opposed to other apparent motions caused by the Earth's rotation, orbit around the Sun (parallax), and aberration due to the finite speed of light. Here is a discussion of proper motion from the Your Sky help pages.

We frequently speak of “the fixed stars” as the one constant in a a sky where everything else is forever changing. But even the “fixed stars” move, albeit slowly compared to a human life span. When you look at the sky, it's easy to think of it, as the ancients did, as a great bowl resting on the horizon. What's difficult to fully grasp is the immense depth of the sky. With your unaided eye, you can see objects as close as a couple of light seconds (the Moon) or as far away as a couple million light years (the great galaxy in Andromeda, M31). All the stars you see in the sky are members of our own galaxy, the Milky Way. Each moves in its own orbit around the galaxy: the Sun takes about 225 million years to complete each circuit. Compared to anything in everyday human experience, the stars are zipping right along: the rate of motion relative to the Sun and Earth is given in kilometers per second, with values for some stars over 100.

It is the immense distance of the stars which keeps their motion from being apparent over short intervals of time. Even motion of 50 kilometers per second which, over a year causes a star to move more than one and a half thousand million kilometers—farther than Saturn is from the Sun, isn't going to be particularly apparent when you're looking at it from a couple of hundred light years away. (A light year is almost 10 million million) kilometers. Seen from a distance of two hundred light years away, or two thousand million million kilometers, motion of a billion and a half kilometers changes the observed position of a star only 0.15 arc seconds (and that's assuming all the motion is at orthogonal to the line of sight; to the extent the motion is toward or away from the Earth, the apparent motion will be less). Even moving at 50 kilometers per second at a right angle to our line of sight, more than 12,000 years will pass before the star's position in our sky changes by the diameter of the full Moon. The apparent motion of most stars seen from Earth is a small fraction of that in this example.

Still, even minuscule motion mounts over millennia. The constellations didn't look the same to our distant ancestors in the Stone Age; one wonders what figures they traced in that ancient sky, and what legends they invented to explain it all. The motion that brought the “fixed stars” to where we see them today continues apace. Who can imagine what our descendants will have learned and done five hundred centuries from now? And yet even though that distant future is unknowable and unimaginable to us, we can chart the sky they will see when they gaze upward from this home planet of our species.

Astronomers call this slow-motion shuffling of the stars proper motion, not in the sense that other forms of motion (the daily, seasonal, and precessional changes we see in the sky) are in any way “improper”, but using “proper” to signify that unlike those other apparent motions which simply reflect our vantage point on the moving Earth, proper motion results from the stars' own motion in space. Proper motion is “real motion”; all the other, more dramatic, “motion” of the stars is only “apparent motion”, due to the rotation of the Earth, motion of the Earth in its orbit, and a host of other, more subtle, effects (for example, aberration due to the finite speed of light).

Remember that proper motion is still “apparent” in the sense that we measure it based on how quickly the star moves in our sky. A star with a large proper motion is not necessarily moving unusually swiftly in space; in most cases it simply seems to move quickly because it's nearby and hence the baseline of the observation is short. The star with the greatest known proper motion is a dim star called Barnard's Star: it's only 5.91 light years away and moving unusually rapidly as well, so we see it move 10.3 arc seconds per year. At this rate it takes only 180 years to move the diameter of the full Moon as seen from Earth. Most stars with large proper motion are undistinguished nearby faint red stars. Nature adores the mediocre, and the vast majority of stars are dim red dwarves—the stellar equivalent of 25 watt bulbs.

Posted at 13:07 Permalink

THE HAPPENING WORLD: See Spot Dance

Meanwhile…

Posted at 12:59 Permalink

CONTINUITY: Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein

Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein (C/2014 UN271) was first imaged in October 2014 by the Dark Energy Survey with a four metre telescope in Chile, but not identified as a comet until 2021-06-22 when a coma was first observed around the object at a distance of 20.18 astronomical units (the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun). Based upon its brightness and estimates of its albedo (reflectivity), this appears to be a huge object—between 100 and 200 kilometres in diameter. By comparison, the nucleus of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1) was estimated to be 40 to 80 km in diameter. Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein is comparable in size or larger than estimates of the Chicxulub impactor which caused a mass extinction on Earth around 66 million years ago.

This object will never get closer to the Sun than 10.95 astronomical units: around the distance of Saturn, and consequently will never develop a large tail or be visible from Earth with the unaided eye. But this discovery, which probably wouldn't have been made without the recently-developed and specialised (for an entirely different purpose) instruments of the Dark Energy Survey, highlights that the risk to Earth from comets, which can drop into the inner solar system from afar at any time, may be greater than that posed by the far more more numerous asteroids, whose orbits can be tracked and, if a threat is discovered, diverted long in advance. Suppose this comet were on course to impact the Earth. What could be done to prevent an extinction-level event? With our present technology, nothing.

Posted at 12:23 Permalink

CONTEXT: Starlink—Elon Musk Discusses its Status, Plans, and Ambitions

In a keynote interview at the Mobile World Congress 2021 in Barcelona, Musk provides a candid and in-depth view of Starlink, how it fits into a telecommunication infrastructure with fibre optic links and 5G mobile, plans for global roll-out of the service and near-term upgrades to the satellite infrastructure and customer terminals, and financial status of the project. In closing, he present his view for how all of his ventures: Tesla, SpaceX, Starlink, and Neuralink fit together to build the future he envisions.

Posted at 11:51 Permalink

THE HAPPENING WORLD: Virgin Orbit “Tubular Bells: Part One” Launch

The live stream of the air launched orbital flight is scheduled to start at 12:30 UTC on 2021-06-30, half an hour before the takeoff of the 747 carrier plane “Cosmic Girl”. The actual launch time of the rocket from the 747 is not specified. Here are details of the mission and the payloads it will launch.

Posted at 11:40 Permalink